Europe Between Washington and Beijing: A Systematic Review of Strategic Autonomy, De-Risking and Triangular Diplomacy in U.S.-China Rivalry
Abstract
Great-power competition between the United States and China has transformed Europe from an arena of parallel economic engagement into a contested strategic space. This article systematically reviews how the European Union (EU) has responded through strategic autonomy, open strategic autonomy and, since 2023, de-risking. The study addresses a persistent problem in the literature: defence dependence, economic security, technological competition, member-state fragmentation and EU-China diplomacy are often analysed separately, making it difficult to determine whether Europe is balancing, hedging, aligning with Washington or constructing an autonomous pole. A PRISMA-informed qualitative review was undertaken of 33 peer-reviewed studies published between 2019 and August 2026, supplemented by seven official EU and U.S. policy documents for contextual triangulation. The synthesis shows, first, that strategic autonomy has expanded from defence into trade, technology, investment, industrial policy and supply-chain resilience. Second, Europe has moved closer to Washington on security and selected technology questions, but this has not produced automatic alignment across all domains. Third, de-risking represents a distinct European geoeconomic approach that seeks targeted diversification and resilience rather than comprehensive decoupling from China. Fourth, European autonomy remains sectorally uneven: it is comparatively stronger where the EU can mobilise regulatory and market power, but weaker where hard-security, cloud, semiconductor and other critical technological dependencies remain pronounced. Fifth, internal EU cohesion is a decisive condition because external influence is most effective when member-state or subnational fragmentation creates openings for wedging. The article concludes that Europe is best understood as pursuing selective alignment with autonomous capacity-building rather than equidistance or full strategic independence. Policy should therefore combine deeper European capability, tighter internal coordination, structured transatlantic consultation and continued issue-specific engagement with China where risks are manageable.
Keywords: European Union, strategic autonomy, de-risking, U.S.-China rivalry, triangular diplomacy, economic security
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